The length of an electrically conductive metal wire Essay Example for Free

The length of an electrically conductive metal wire Essay The results of the experiment, however, do not adhere to the direct proportionality relationship predicted in the hypothesis. In the hypothesis a zero value for wire length is predicted to induce a zero value for wire resistance. Intuitively, this should be the case. However, regardless of what linear line of regression one examines from the ones plotted, it is obvious that the experiment indicates the existence of electric resistance even when the wire has no length. This result is indicated through the intersection of the regression curves with positive Y values. The zero length resistance varies from 0. 02 to 0. 0578 ohms. The existence of errors in the experiment, namely systematic ones, may help explain the result. Errors The method for the experiment contained some errors. Some of those are evident when examining the results of the experiment. Others are very small, and did not have a great effect on the final outcomes. The most prominent source of error had to do with the existence of additional resistance in the circuit used. The metal wire used, since it wasnt a wire meant for electrical circuits, naturally offered the greatest resistance to current flow. Nevertheless, the connecting wires also contained some inevitable resistance. Additionally, the ammeter, and power supply also had some internal resistance (the voltmeter did as well, but this is necessary for the procurement of accurate voltage values). Since current flowed through all those, the resistance values obtained did not represent solely the resistance of the metal wire. This probably explains the systematic error foreboded in the conclusion. The existence of resistance in other pieces of apparatus except the metal wire allowed for the possibility of resistance even when the metal wire would have no length. Another source of error existed in the measurement of the wire length used in the circuit. The metal wire used was manipulated to assume a straight form. However, even after it was firmly attached to a table, it was not fully stretched. In some of the cases, it may have bent slightly, making the total wire length greater than what was measured. This could have contributed some additional, and unwanted, resistance to the wire. After all, a longer wire offers more resistance to current flow. Altogether, an addition to the systematic overestimation of the resistance of the metal wire also came from this error source. Though negligible, some error could have sprung from the heating of the wire used. As current was allowed to flow through the metal wire, atoms of the wire collided with the electrons flowing, causing the wire to heat up. If the wire werent allowed to cool down before another measurement was taken, then it would have posed additional resistance to the subsequent current flows, since resistance rises with temperature. Again, the method used in this experiment allowed for the existence of additional resistance in the wire that was not taken into account. Improvements In light of the errors noted, or for the need to perfect other experiments of the same type, improvements to the method can be offered. Firstly, the error involving the length of the metal wire could be minimized in two ways. Either a much more flexible wire could be used for the allowance of a straighter metal wire, or a greater effort could be made to stretch the existent wire so that it is much more straight. In both ways, the length measured for the metal wire would be more representative of the actual length being used. Another improvement could deal with minimizing the existence of additional resistance in the circuit besides that of the metal wire examined. This could be done in several ways. The connecting wires used could be shorter, meaning their resistance would be smaller. A power supply and ammeter with smaller internal resistances could also be used. In either of the cases, additional resistance in the circuit would decrease, and the systematic error in resistance minimized. Finally, though not too necessary, it is possible to improve the experiment by minimizing resistance distortions due to temperature increases. A simple way would be to wait at least 3 minutes between each current flow induced through the wire. This way, the whole circuit together with the wire itself would have time to cool down. Wire temperature would hence not be a factor distorting the resistance values being measured, as it would be more or less the same in all measurements. Nevertheless, it may be that the distortions to resistance values caused by temperature increase are so small that this improvement on the whole is futile. Another minor improvement to the method would be the use of a switch. This way, current flow could be initiated and stopped on demand (i. e. immediately). It would be of course necessary to use a switch that offers little resistance. Otherwise, the current construction of the circuit is preferable.

Philosophy of life Essay Example for Free

Philosophy of life Essay There is only one way to live and achieve a meaningful life, and can be acquired by looking inside yourself and determining what is the best things you can do in your life. There are endless suggestions on how to live a meaningful life; however, these are not necessary guides or the only way because each person is different. This means that there is no one way that is correct or no one way that is false because each person is unique in their own way and have varying perspectives of life. According to Jobs, life is about living to connect the dots. He says that you can only connect the dots by looking back at decisions and things that have happened and that you cannot connect the dots for the future. He also says that you tell yourself that to live to connect the dots and that what you’re doing is setting up a dot to be connected that is when you can go with heart. He went to college and dropped out after six months and started going to classes that he was interested in instead of going to classes that were demanded and he did not enjoy. One of the classes he went to was a calligraphy class. He says that if he had not dropped out and went to this class that he would not have been so successful with the Mac. Jobs stressed the idea that without the inspirations attained in calligraphy class that were used in the design of Macintosh all personal computers would be non-existent because Windows copied Macintosh. Jobs may have started Apple in his garage with his friend but within ten years it became a $2 billion company. Shortly after the ten years, contradicting visions led to the divergence of the company and the firing of Steve Jobs. In the fall of his old job Jobs created two new companies, NeXT and Pixar, which both became very well-known and successful companies. Pixar, now the most successful animation studio in the world, went on to create the first computer animated movie â€Å"Toy Story. † NeXT was bought by Apple leading to the return of Jobs and the technology he developed at NeXT is now the heart of Apple’s renaissance. He rounds out this speech with the idea everyone should strive for what makes them happy, doing the things they enjoy. He also rejoices in the fact that enjoying the things he loves now motivated his comeback and redeemed himself in the public eye. Wallace’s speech was focused on finding a personal, deeper meaning. He gives a variety of examples of frustrating moments, while providing insight on how we react. For example: he talks about a woman in line yelling at her kids. To most people they think that’s how she treats her kids all the time leading to some misinterpretation. Instead of thinking that way, he provides alternate cases she might be dealing with, such as, suffering from extreme stress due to her husbands’ bone cancer or maybe she extended an act of kindness at her work for an individual dealing with tough circumstances. He talks about the roughness of everyday adult life, explaining the need to not jump to conclusions and extending grace, making the situation a much happier one. Wallace is not trying to give moral advice or strict guidelines to follow because this can become difficult, he only wants to give noteworthy insight to a stressful situation. He then goes on to talk about worship. Wallace explains how, in his opinion, atheism does not exist due to the fact everyone worships something, demolishing the basis behind atheism. The only choice individuals get to decide is the things they worship. If one chooses to worship money then they will never have enough of it; if one chooses to worship their body then they will always think that they are ugly and will never be happy. He says that the insidious thing about these forms of worship is not that they are sinful, but rather they are unconscious default settings. This type of worship allows beings to slip into a more lax way of thinking causing them to be more selective without ever being fully aware of what they are doing. Jobs’ approach to a skilled life is finding something one is passionate about doing and doing it no matter the route one takes. He dropped out of college after six months and just dropped-in on classes that sounded interesting to him. He found something that he really enjoyed in calligraphy class leading him to design the Macintosh and which ultimately led to the creation of personal computers. He loves the adaptability of technology and discovering the next best thing. Also, he stresses that connecting the dots is big because it leads you to your hearts desires. So according to Jobs, finding something that you love doing and living to connect the dots is the key to a prosperous, fulfilling life. According to Wallace, the approach to a more prosperous life is to think things through in a deeper more educated meaning. He talks about moments in our lives where we may get frustrated and what we can do to prevent from getting so mad. So overall, they are trying to convey the same message which is: obtaining a skillful and prosperous life. To me, I feel as though what makes life meaningful is living it to the fullest and learning from mistakes. I do not necessarily agree or disagree with either Jobs or Wallace ideals because they are not the main things to achieve a prosperous life but they are good things to incorporate in life. Life is so much more than finding something that you enjoy doing because I enjoy playing Xbox but that is not going to get me anywhere in life. Also, it is more than just thinking deeply about situations when I am going to get frustrated. I say you should always take opportunities presented in your life, not allowing them to pass you by. Take opportunities the first time and don’t be impassive assuming there will be another. With these opportunities there is always the decision to side between right and wrong. Now, I hope that everyone has a strong enough will to be able to pick the good opportunities rather than the bad ones. If you have a chance to make a difference in someone’s life or can change the outcome of a situation then why be passive and not pursue it? Life is all about choices and decision making. These things also come with responsibility and the decisions you make will lead to positive or negative consequences. Everyone makes bad choices in their life because no one is perfect and we are fallen people. With this falleness comes sin and with sin comes destruction, but we are given the opportunity to learn from our mistakes and continue to grow through them. All of these life situations leads us to be a better person to ourselves, others, and God. In order to live a thriving life, one must make conscious decisions, learn from their mistakes, and thank the Lord for opportunities and learning experiences. There is no guide on how to live a meaningful life. It is all up to the individual and whatever they see fit for themselves and their life. Though I have this view, it does not mean that it is the only way to live a meaningful life, the same goes for Jobs’ and Wallace’s opinions. Each person has some ideals that everyone can draw from to make their life better and happier, but it is not necessarily the only way to achieve a meaningful life. The true way to achieve a meaningful life is to look deep inside oneself and decide how to accomplish one’s own meaning prosperous life.

McDonald’s Environmental Issues

McDonald’s Environmental Issues Introduction There is evidence of corporate sustainability, which is a balance of economic, social, and environment as a necessity for business (Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002). Additionally, companies caring about their environmental issue will not only benefit the environment but also the company itself. Consumers show preferences for green products and are willing to pay a premium price thus improve revenues (Peattie, 2001). While dealing with environmental impacts, corporates may find ways to reduce their costs and waste. Reputation could be earned at the same time (Bansal and Roth, 2000). As one of the worlds largest fast food chains, McDonald’s is criticized by environmentalists with many problems. It is vital for McDonald’s to identify its key issues and provide solutions. In this essay, McDonald’s impact on global warming and packaging waste as well as it responses will be discussed. Then, recommendations are drawn. McDonald’s environmental issues The main issue of McDonald’s negative impact on the environment is global warming resulting from greenhouse gas emissions from cows as well as damaging the rainforest for raising beef cattle and grains. For one thing, methane emitted from cattle is a major contributor of global warming. McDonald’s, as one of the world’s largest buyer of beef, is using 350000 cattle a year. With so many cows farting all day, they could produce a considerable amount of greenhouse gas. In the UK for example, 4% of the carbon emissions are the gas emitted by livestock (Day, 2010). For another, McDonald’s is causing the deforestation in the rain forest. McDonald’s often buys meats for its burgers from privatized farms. These privatized farms, however, are being blamed for not environmentally because the farmland they used to rear the cattle used to be a lush rainforest (Ecologist, 2010). In addition, trees in the rainforest are cut down for agricultural to grow grain for the livestock and poultry (Chew, 2001). According to Greenpeace, McDonald’s feed the chickens with the soybeans grown in the Amazon rainforest because those soybeans are cheaper (Astor, 2006). Therefore, McDonald’s is not only responsible for greenhouse gas emissions but destroying forests, which could help to address global warming. Global warming is an important issue for business as it could have negative impact on economies. McDonald’s should care about this because global warming would influence food supply and transportation, which are two main sectors for fast food industry. Regarding food, global warming may affect production of seafood and agricultural. The rising water temperature has damage the coral reef ecosystems, which are homes to many marine species. Loss of shelters is threatening the survival of coral reef fish. Crop production may also decline. For instance, in parts of Africa, growing season for crops is shortening due to the warmer and dryer weather (Grossman, 2013). Farmers may have to abandon their land that are too warm or too dry and invest in new areas. This causes problems of decreasing revenue as well as food productivity. Furthermore, transportations may face an increase in fuel cost because of climate-related policies. Since carbon dioxide emitted from burning oil contributes largely to global warming, governments are imposing taxes to fossil fuel and result in the price to rise (Grossman, 2013). Prices of biofuels are increasing as well due to the decline of crop production. For the society, global warming not only brings about economic impacts but social problems. People would have a greater chance of suffering from drought, floods, and other climate-related disasters (Stern, N., 2008). Thus, may lead to an increasing number of environmental refugees. The mass migrant is likely to trigger conflict with indigenous resident and even conflicts between countries (Hartmann, 2010). Packaging waste is another environmental problem McDonald’s should tackle with. Considering how much waste is created when getting a meal from McDonald’s: a wrapper for burger, a box for fries, a cup for drinks with a lid and a straw, napkins, and a bag for individual use. McDonald’s use tons of unnecessary packing everyday, which end up littering on the street and buried in landfills. Convenience and portability are the main reason for the packaging waste for fast food industry. As people now in busy modern lifestyle prefer easy and quick food, the amount of waste that fast food industry created therefore increased (Aarnio and Hamalainen, 2008). According to a survey in England, 29% of the litter on streets is the wrappers and cups from McDonald’s (Gray, 2009). McDonald’s should take action to reduce its packaging waste since waste generation could cause serious environmental pollution and put human health at rick. Within Europe, 50 million tons of packaging wastes are produce every year. To burn these huge amounts of waste may release some harmful chemicals into the air, which is harmful to people’s health. Landfilling, likewise, could lead to land pollution and kill underground animals that live there. Wastes may also flow to the ocean and become marine debris, harming marine life (Golub, 1996). Additionally, waste generation represents human’s â€Å"inefficient use of natural resources† (Scortar, 2013). 3. McDonald’s responses McDonald’s is alert of these issues and has announced several environmental initiatives to prove that it is trying to solve its environmental impacts. Concerning global warming, McDonald’s make efforts to reducing its impact on deforestation and carbon emission. Firstly McDonald’s promise not to buy soya grown in Amazon rainforest (Greenpeace, 2006). Deforestation for soya farming and cattle ranching in Amazon is one major driver for global warming. Studies have shown the relationship between soya production and deforestation rate in Amazon (Nepstad, Stickler and Almeida, 2006). McDonald’s approach to stop using soya from Amazon could reduce rainforest destruction and help mitigate global warming. To reduce carbon footprint, McDonald’s improves carbon efficiency by using energy-efficient equipment and low-energy lights in its restaurants (McDonald’s, 2013). According to Stern (2008), the mitigation in energy use is important as it has equal effect as agriculture and deforestation in contributing greenhouse gas emission. Moreover, McDonald’s had team up with E-CO2 project, a consultancy and energy auditing company, to measure cattle’s methane emission of its farms. E-CO2 project not only provide carbon assessment tool but also help farms to reduce emissions by using new technology on the farm (Day, 2010). Livestock account for 14.5% of human-caused global greenhouse gas emission. Hence it is critical to cut emission from livestock production. McDonald’s solution to this issue, which is changing farming techniques can be considered appropriate. According to UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the adoption of better techniques can cut as much as 30% of global warming gases (FAO, 2013). In 2014, the fast-food chain took another step to reduce carbon emission, announcing it would start purchase verified sustainable beef. Nevertheless, McDonald’s is criticized for not giving definition for sustainable and not providing what percentage will its meat come from those sources (Picchi, 2014). A more specific standard should be set up on selecting its meat suppliers. To deal with packaging waste issue, McDonald’s redesigned it’s packaging with sustainable materials and to be recyclable. In 2011, McDonald’s claimed that 82% of its packaging are made from renewable materials (Farmer, 2011). In the US restaurants, McDonald’s stop using polystyrene famed coffee cup and replace it with paper-based cups (Environment News Service, 2013). This approach could have positive effect on the marine environment. Foamed polystyrene is frequently used for fast food packaging. This foamed plastic, however, is non-sustainable and is not widely recycled. After littered, they may easily travel through gutters and end up in the ocean. It is the most common components of marine debris. When the polystyrene breaks down into small indigestible pellets, marine animals or birds may mistake them as food and eat them, which would lead to their death (Owens, Zhang, and Mihelcic, 2011). Although paper cups still have its own problems such as energy waste and the chemicals uses during the production, it is a recyclable recourse and will not exist in the environment for such long time as polystyrene does. Besides redesigning packaging, recycling programs are introduced. For example, 11 McDonald’s restaurants in the UK are recycling waste to turn them into electricity instead of sending them to landfills (Eccleston, 2008). Working with the Environmental Defense Fund help McDonald’s find ways to reuse and recycle packaging (Farmer, 2011). However, to reduce waste may be the may be a better solution than simply recycling. Despite that recycling reduces landfill use and conserves natural recourses, the process of recycling could generate other negative effects on the environment. Wastes needed to be sorted, collected and processed and this consumes a lot of energy. During the recycling, harmful chemicals may also release into the air (Berkin, Carrigan and Szmigin, 2007). Recycling may help ease the pollution of waste but mass consumption of unnecessary packaging is the key problem to packaging waste issue. McDonald’s should focus more on reducing the amount of waste i t produce. 4. Recommendations To make sure that it purchases meat from a sustainable resource, McDonald’s could create a code of conduct on how it selecting suppliers. The rules could be not buying beef that are raised on deforested land or acquire its suppliers to agree that they would improve and apply new methods of raising cattle and poultry which could be beneficial in reducing carbon emissions. Take IKEA for example, it set up an IKEA Way of Purchasing Home Furnishing Products (IWAY) which lists many requirements for its suppliers’ environmental behavior such as purchasing wood from forests that are managed in a sustainable way. Choosing suppliers following the IWAY enables IKEA to successfully obtain a sustainable supply chain (IKEA, 2011). By making a code of conduct, McDonald’s could have a clear standard on the requirements its suppliers should meet. Being stricter on choosing suppliers that contribute less to greenhouse gases and deforestation would help McDonald’s lowering its impact on global warming. McDonald’s should also invest in research and support its supplier to adopt other practices that are useful in cutting emission from livestock and pasture since the suppliers have limited financial resource in developing new techniques. Apart from using new technology, carbon sequestration in rangeland, change in cattle’s diet and agroforestry could have long-term benefits in reducing agriculture and livestock’s contribution to global warming. First of all, carbon sequestration in rangeland has great potential in mitigation of the impact of livestock production. This method can be done by planting deep-rooted pasture such as Brachiaria. It is estimated that Brachiaria can capture and store 29.5 t/ha more carbon than other pasture (Thornton and Herrero, 2009). Preventing overgrazing and adding nutrients from manure or fertilizer can also have positive effect on carbon storage (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2011). Diet improvement may further help to mitigate cows ’ methane emission. Reducing methane could be beneficial to the environment because methane is 23 times as powerful as CO2 at causing global warming (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2011). For instance, Beauchemin and McGinn (2005) suggest that a corn-based diet would decrease cattle’s greenhouse gas emission. In addition, adaptation of agroforestry could provide positive to the environment. The increasing of trees enables greater carbon sequestration. Agroforestry can also produce more digestible and nutritive crop and forage for cattle, which decrease methane production digestion (Thornton and Herrero, 2009). If McDonald’s could assist its suppliers in implementing new methods such as carbon sequestration, changing cow’s diet and turning into agroforestry system, it is likely to reduce carbon emissions more efficiently. In order to reduce packaging waste, using reusable containers and giving incentive to customer to provide their own cups may be two options for McDonald’s. McDonald’s can replace some of its packaging such as salad containers and coffee cups with reusable ones because recycling packaging including glass and paper are proved to be less environmental than reusable packaging (Van Dam, 1996). KFC has started using eco-friendly container in its US restaurants since 2010 and plans to replace paper boxes with reusable plastic plates (Environmental Leader, 2010). McDonald’s could also offer discounts to encourage customers to provide their own beverage bottle or coffee cups. For instance, consumers buying coffee in Starbucks will have a ten-cent discount if they bring their own cup. Moreover, Aydinliyim and Pangburn (2012) indicate that such campaign could help companies to increase profit. With the introduction of reusable containers and promotion, McDonald’s is possible to earn more while reducing waste at the same time. 5. Conclusion McDonald’s has been criticized for having bad influences on the environment. To provide meat for its food, McDonald’s indirectly causing deforestation in rainforest and greenhouse gas emission. In addition, McDonald’s use too much unnecessary packaging and many of them are non-recyclable and non-renewable. Thus, it can be concluded that the main environmental issues for McDonald’s are global warming and packaging waste generation. McDonald’s itself is aware of these issues and has made several strategies to solve the problem. By stop purchasing soybean in Amazon, improving carbon efficiency and using new farming techniques, McDonald’s could successfully reduce its impact on global warming. However, McDonald’s still cannot guarantee that its meat all come from sustainable recourse. With regard to packaging waste, McDonald’s redesign packaging with sustainable materials and start recycling programs while neglecting the importance of reducing waste generation. To better tackle with these issues, it is recommended that McDonald’s draw up a code of conduct for its supplier selection to work with farms and ranches that is not harming the forest. Furthermore, McDonald’s should monitor and support supplier to reduce impacts on carbon and methane emission. Practices including carbon sequestration, changing cattle’s diet and agroforestry may be useful. It is also important for McDonald’s to use reusable container and promote customers to bring their own containers by offering them discount to reduce packaging consumption. By doing so, McDonald’s could lower its negative effects on global warming and packaging waste.

Beowulf From Early Anglo-Saxon Text to Hypertext :: Internet Medieval Literature Essays

Beowulf From Early Anglo-Saxon Text to Hypertext This paper describes the combined use of Mosaic and the World Wide Web as tools that will both allow scholars and researchers to examine ancient manuscripts without the risk of physical damage to the manuscripts, and facilitate greater general public access to the material. The British Library is currently engaged in a project to establish a full image archive relating to the transmission down the ages of one of the earliest known Anglo-Saxon poems: Beowulf (thought by some to have been written in the eighth century AD, and rife with fighting, slaying and mythical monsters), as part of its commitment to increase access to its collections, by use of digital imaging and networking technology. Images of parts of the Beowulf manuscript are scanned in 24-bit colour, both under visible and ultraviolet light. These images may be of entire pages, or just single words or letters. The resulting image files are huge: at a maximum size of 2320 by 3072 pixels each image takes up about 20-25 MB, however they can reveal even more information than would physical examination of the original manuscripts, for example allowing the detection of alterations to the manuscripts and revealing letters that have been obscured by repairs to eighteenth century fire damage. The Library is experimenting with the use of Mosaic and the World Wide Web as a front end to provide initial access to materials in the Library's Reading Rooms in London. Mosaic was chosen as a powerful, simple-to-use interface suitable for users who may not be computer-literate. By use of off-line image preparation, server-side scripts performing on-the-fly image manipulation and caching of images, users are able to search quickly for detail in the images, while the hypertext features of the Web allow cross references to background material to be presented. Introduction The British Library is the national library of Great Britain. It has amongst its collection of over 15 million books and other documents, several hundred thousand ancient manuscripts. One of these is a unique copy of the epic poem Beowulf, which tells of the deeds of the eponymous hero, king of the Geats; of his battles with the half-human fiend Grendel and the monster's mother, and ends with his mortal combat with a fiery dragon. The poem is one of the oldest existing Anglo-Saxon poems, having been written down in the early eleventh century AD, but thought by some to have been composed even earlier in the eighth century.

The Philosophy of Education :: Educating Teaching Learning Essays

The Philosophy of Education In this philosophy I will talk about the goals of teaching and ways to accomplish them. Also I will describe how I feel about public education, what kind of teacher is the best, and what school system works the best because of social skills and such. The disciplining of students is also discussed because it is a touchy yet very important topic. Public education is the most important form of education. It provides people with the common ability of social skills. Which can not be replaced with home school. Home school does not provide the amount of people and the situations that are presented to you at a public school. Some would argue that private school is better but not me. There is not enough difference in people they are to regulated and there is not the diversity of people. Such as in public schools I could where a pair of jeans and a tee shirt but in public school there is most likely a uniform code. That does not give you the difference of people and their attitude on life. It also lessens student’s opportunity to see how someone else expresses their lifestyle and how they grew up. Those are the people who you deal with in the real world so it is only right and vital that you deal with those types of people when you are young. If you have never experienced people than it is hard to buy, sel l, or even talk to people with whom you do not know or even understand. The purpose of education is to have the knowledge that will allow you to be successful and provide for your family. It is most important to start at a young age. That is when you learn the most. When you are young you can learn things without even trying it flows to you as if you had some weird power but it is just the fact that your brain has such a craving and is in a quest for all of the knowledge it can handle.

Peer Effects and Alcohol Use among College Students, by M. Kremer and D. Levy, :: Peer Pressure Essays

Kremer and Levy (2008) analyze to what degree college students who consume alcohol influence their peers. College students could affect their peers’ alcohol consumption, which in turn may lead to damaging effects. For example, peers could potentially disrupt classrooms, be exposed to disease, and lower their grade point average, start binge drinking, abuse illegal drugs, and even die. These affects may generate multiplier effects in the future. Earlier studies have examined this issue of alcohol consumption and the negative peer effects among college students. Sacerdote (2001) examines peer effects in universities. He finds evidence that supports this theory that students whose roommates reported high beer consumption were more likely to replicate the same behavior. Kremer and Levy (2003) noted that peers who had a roommate that drank could potentially increase the peer’s preference for alcohol consumption. The Cooperative Institutional Research Program’s (CIRP’s) Entering Student Survey demonstrated GPA’s declining in peers whose roommates drank alcohol frequently, especially those who had in high school. The survey classified males as being especially sensitive to peer influences. Empirical data presented by Wechsler, Lee, Kuo & Lee (2000) show that alcohol use and abuse reported by 40% of university students had been binge drinking at least once within the past two weeks and it was concluded that alcohol use, and more specifically binge drinking, is a social influence by peers. There are various economic theories presented in this article. For example, in the context of academic achievement, the assumptions made are that peers could affect others’ preferences, as seeing their friends consume alcohol also stimulates the desire in the other student to consume alcohol. Many theoretical models assume that students’ academic achievements are a linear function of their peer’s ability to influence their behavior as well. The theories presented consist of peers’ effects on the influence of preferences, leading to lower academic achievement because the student’s study is disrupted. The assumption that students who are frequent drinkers being roomed with another frequent drinker would increase their alcohol consumption and possibly lead to binge drinking based on variables, preferences model, and theoretical models which assume the student’s academic outcomes are a linear function of their peer influence, and multiplier effe cts. Kremer and Levy find from the empirical works that some individuals are more vulnerable than others in the influence to increase alcohol consumption. The increase in alcohol consumption is more commonly linked to the desire for social acceptability.

Promoting Gender Equality Essay

For centuries women were not treated equal to men in many ways. They were not allowed to own property, they did not have a Share in the property of their parents, they had no voting rights, they had no freedom to choose their work or job and so on. Now that we have come out of those dark days of oppression of women there is a need for strong movement to fight for the rights of women and to ensure that they get all the rights which men have or in other words a movement for the Empowerment of Women. The present seminar has been planned with a view to discuss the various issues related to the Empowerment of Women and to suggest measures for achieving this end.The body of research on women‘s empowerment has conceptualized and defined this construct in many ways and used different terms, often interchangeably, including ―autonomy,â€â€"―status,â€â€" and ―agencyâ€â€" (Lee-Rife and Edmeades 2011; Malhotra et al. 2002; Upadhyay and Hindin 2005). see more:examples of gender equality A review of the literature also shows different measures for the same conceptualization. For example, studies often measure women‘s autonomy with an index that assesses their participation in decision-making in various household issues. This index represents women‘s degree of control over their environment. Some researchers include both major and minordecisions, while others include only major decisions, excluding day-to-day household decisions and those that are traditionally within the woman‘s domain. Women‘s empowerment encompasses many dimensions, including economic, socio-cultural, familial/interpersonal, legal, political, and psychological (Malhotra et al. 2002), which contributes to the wide variation in conceptualizations of women‘s empowerment. Given this variation in conceptualization, it is difficult to measure women‘s empowerment consistently. Kabeer (2001), whose definition is widely accepted, defines empowerment as ―the expansi on of people‘s ability to make strategic life choices in a context where this ability was previously denied to them. Two central components of empowerment are agency and resources needed to exercise life choices (Kabeer 2001; Malhotra et al. 2002). Even with a clear definition, these constructs are difficult to quantify in a standardized way.Additionally, to measure empowerment at an individual level, researchers must translate the amorphous constructs into a set of specific questions that population-based surveys can ask of individual respondents (Kishor and Subaiya 2008). Another challenge is the variation in cultural contexts that affect the measurement of women‘s empowerment. It is desirable to use standardized questions that enable cross-cultural comparisons of empowerment. Yet a measure that captures empowerment in one context may have limited relevance in another, as is the case with measures that assess mobility in a community where women‘s free movement is the norm. While many existing measures of empowerment were originally conceptualized and developed for the context of Asia, and for South Asian countries in particular (Dyson and Moore 1983; Mason 1987), measures that are universally applicable regardless of the gender equity environment, such as those used in Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), are most useful for cross-national comparisons. Using the available standardized measures of women‘s empowerment among several population-based samples from sub-Saharan Africa will allow us to make comparisons and better understand whether the available measures adequately capture empowerment in these settings. It is still unknown whether the same dimensions of empowerment that were developed elsewhere are relevant in sub-Saharan Africa, where the gender environment is completely different than in other regions. In Africa, empowerment is likely to look different than elsewhere because of such differences as more working women who have control over their earnings, more polygamy, more nuclear families (as opposed to extended families), and larger ideal family size, and because women‘s status is often tied to their fertility. EMPOWERMENT AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH A broad body of research exists on women‘s empowerment and reproductive outcomes. Substantial research, primarily focused on Asia, demonstrates that women‘s empowerment is associated with contraceptive use (Gwako 1997; Morgan and Niraula 1995; Schuler et al. 1997; Woldemicael 2009), lower fertility (Balk 1994; Dyson and Moore 1983; Hindin 2000), and longer birth intervals (Upadhyay and Hindin 2005). Some researchers have suggested that women‘s empowerment is a key pathway through which education influences fertility (Jejeebhoy 1995; Mason 1987). To operationalize women‘s empowerment, much of the research literature uses the previously mentioned index of participation in house holddecision-making. The standard DHS questionnaire includes a set of questions about household decision-making. Other approaches include assessing women‘s acceptance of reasons that a husband is justified for beating his wife, and also reasons that a wife is justified in refusing sex with her husband (Ethiopian Society of Population Studies 2008). The DHS includes questions about these issues. Such gender-role attitudes measure the extent of women‘s acceptance of norms that justify men‘s control over women. As expected, they are associated with lower levels of power over household decision-making among women (Dhaher et al. 2010; Hindin 2003; Linos et al. 2010). MAJOR OBSTACLES TO THE PROMOTION OF GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWERMENT Notwithstanding the widespread commitment shown through the ratification of international and regional gender equality frameworks, normative gains are not yet fully reflected in substantial changes in women’s lives, as shown in the preceding section. Large gaps remain between policy and practice and it is the aim of this section to discuss some of the major challenges that have been experienced. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional practices constraining progress in achieving gender parity The continued presence of long standing cultural and traditional practices that discriminate against women and girls’ have constrained the progress towards achieving gender equality. Discriminatory practices and public attitudes towards the advancement of women and gender equality have not changed at the same pace as policy, legal and institutional frameworks. Lack of ratification of the instruments that promote gender equality Previous sections have identified the status with respect to a number of regional instruments, particularly the African Women’s Protocol. Some countries are yet to sign this instrument, while a considerable number are yet to ratify it. Ineffective institutional and policy implementation mechanisms Thirteen years after the adoption of the BPFA by the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, the greatest challenge facing countries and regional institutions is the effective implementation of the adopted commitments. Good policies that do not have well formulated implementation plans and resources render the policies ineffective. In some countries, the capacity of gender machineries has also contributed to the slow pace. Some policies are not effectively implemented because they were not developed in a participatory way inclusive of both men and women. Lack of targets with well defined time-frames are also some of the factors that have hampered effective implementation of policies. Lack of monitoring and evaluation mechanisms also plays a significant role in the lack of implementation. Moreover, some policies tend to focus on the symptoms rather than addressing the persistent underlying causes of gender inequality. African women, especially those living in rural communities and those with disabilities, still face exclusion from participating in development processes that can empower them and improve gender equality. It is crucial to undertake inclusive participatory approaches in policy development that involve women as equal partners. Lack of adequate resources Lack of human and financial resources severely limits gender mainstreaming to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment. Even in situations where a comprehensive plan of action for gender mainstreaming has been developed, countries may not have adequate resources to implement the plan. In particular National Gender Machineries (NGMs) experience limited financial and other material resource base to enhance the implementation of gender equality mandates, roles and responsibilities. In addition, there are gaps in human capacity, there is generally a challenge with respect to gender competence skills of officers in the NGMs to influence the engendering of macro-economic and sector policy frameworks. There is high staff turn over of experts, and low staff retention, most countries are facing difficulties of retaining and sustaining staff with the necessary expertise. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional practices constraining progress in achieving gender parity in education In taking decisions with respect to the education of their children, some families continue to have preference for educating boys rather than girls. As noted female-to-male school enrolment, retention and completion favor boys in a majority of countries. Very few countries have female to male enrolment rates that favor girls over boys and these countries have been making progress to redress the situation. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional practices constraining progress in achieving gender parity in health Some cultural and traditional practices continue to inhibit progress in the area of sexual and reproductive rights. Women and girls continue to risk death from maternal mortality. There is need to provide accessible sexual and reproductive healthcare services and education to reduce maternal mortality. Such interventions need to address the roles of both men and women. The rate of HIV infection is much higher among women than men and in this regard, governments must establish and monitor strict legal frameworks to address the vulnerability of women and girls. Furthermore, access to anti-retroviral treatment should be ensured. Lack of enforcement of laws that promote gender equality and lack of knowledge of laws In some countries laws that promote gender equality are in place, however lack of enforcement of such laws leads to the perpetuation of gender inequalities and violence against women. In some countries, laws are in place, but interpretation of these laws is lacking and as such, they are not enforced. Lack of full involvement of men and boys Changing cultural and traditional beliefs including patriarchy requires the involvement of men, and boys in the promotion of gender equality through innovative rights-based, culturally sensitive programmes and continued education and sensitization. Continued lack of recognition of women’s unpaid work The continued lack of recognition of unpaid work (domestic, reproductive, care and support) performed by women hampers the development of policies that can effectively promote gender equality. There is therefore need for such work to be given due recognition in the computation of national income. Limited role of the media The media can play a major role in promoting gender equality beyond what it is currently doing. In particular in creating awareness, sensitization and education campaigns to change patriarchal attitudes. As noted before establishing new laws alone is not enough; existing gendered social relations and cultural norms may quickly shape these laws. There is need for measures to counter preexisting social forces through education and training of both men and women. The media can make a major contribution towards promoting these gender equality messages. Lack of sex disaggregated and gender responsive data Sex-disaggregated data and information from gender-sensitive indicators are often not collected, lost in aggregation of published data, or not used. Gender responsive data would help in tracking the progress made towards achievement of gender equality. SUGGESTED RECOMMENDATIONS Translation of commitments and policies promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment into action on the ground remains a major challenge in Africa. Based on the findings of this study, this section highlights some recommendations that can help countries successfully implement the commitments and policies aimed at promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment. Improved research and collection of gender responsive statistical data It is important to systematically collect accurate sex and gender disaggregated data and conduct research that is essential for monitoring and evaluating progress towards achievement of gender equality and women’s empowerment. More efforts are needed to build capacity of national experts to collect gender disaggregated data in order to enhance integration of gender perspectives in the development process. Strengthen documentation and dissemination of information on promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment Sharing of information is important within countries, between countries and internationally and is critical to the success of achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment. There is need to intensify documentation of experiences with successful and unsuccessful practices and widely disseminate this information. It is important for member States, development partners and international and regional bodies to identify information exchange systems that can facilitate wide exchange of this information in the region. CONCLUSION The Empowerment of women has become one of the most important Concerns of 21st century not only at national level but also at the international level. Efforts by the Govt. are on to ensure Gender equality but Government initiatives alone would not be sufficient to achieve this goal. Society must take initiative to create a climate in which there is no gender discrimination and Women have full opportunities of Self decision making and participating in the Social, Political and Economic life of the Country with a sense of equality. 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